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MEDICINES
- NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS
Exudates, humans, epilepsy, oral ingestion: In traditional folk medicine in Oman
(Dhofar), frankincense was mixed with white wine and the lungs of a hare and
the mixture drunk as a remedy for epilepsy [1593]
Exudates, humans, stimulant: Frankincense was taken to avert lethargy [1593]
Gum, humans: Used in Yemen to treat emotional and psychological problems [1368]
MEDICINES - PAIN
Bark, humans, muscles: The astringent bark was dried and powdered and made up
into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing ointment which was rubbed
over the entire body as a remedy for severe muscle pain [1354]
Exudates, humans: Frankincense in wine was said to have been given to those about
to be executed in order to numb the pain and the terror [1593]
Gum, humans, eyes: In Dhofar, the soot of the gum was used to make eye antimony.
This was worn to soothe sore eyes, to protect against infection, to improve the
sight and as a cosmetic [1354]
Gum, humans, head, analgesic: In Dhofar, the smoke of the smouldering gum was
inhaled by people suffering from a persistent headache [1354]
MEDICINES - PREGNANCY/BIRTH/PUERPERIUM DISORDERS
Bark, humans, morning sickness: The astringent bark was chewed by Dhofari women
who were nauseated in early pregnancy [1354]
Exudates, humans, labor, oral ingestion: In traditional folk medicine in Oman
(Dhofar), a potion made from snake skin with added wine and frankincense was
taken to ease difficult labor [1593]
Fruits, mammals, pregnancy: In Dhofar, fruits were gathered to feed parturient
(or sickly) stock, being considered to possess curative and stimulating properties
exceeding even those of the foliage [1354]
Gum, humans, fumigants: In Dhofar, during childbirth, gum was burned beside the
mother, and the newborn baby was also fumigated with frankincense. Regular fumigation
with the gum was carried out by the mother for the 40 days following the birth.
She would also squat over a bowl of the burning gum daily throughout this period.
This practice was held to assist in the healing of any birth scarring or laceration,
to protect the parturient woman from postpartum infections during this time,
to restore muscle tone and to accelerate the recovery of the body from the rigors
of giving birth [1354]
Gum, humans, pregnancy: In Yemen the gum is chewed by pregnant women [1368]
MEDICINES - RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISORDERS
Exudates, humans, other medicine types: Small doses of frankincense in wine were
given as a sedative to children with respiratory complaints [1593]
Exudates, humans, respiratory mucus, fumigants, oral ingestion: Used to treat
excessive secretion of mucus, as identified in the Pharmacopoeia of India of
1868 [1593]
Exudates, humans: The oleo-gum-resin has been used as a respiratory antiseptic
[1400]
Gum, humans, coughs, oral ingestion: The gum is melted, boiled in cow or goat
milk, and taken to soothe a cough [1593]
MEDICINES - SENSORY SYSTEM DISORDERS
Gum, humans, eyes, washes: The gum is a common ingredient in eye-washes to treat
a wide variety of ophthalmic diseases [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, blindness, external applications: The soot mixed
with goat or sheep bile is used to treat temporary or worsening blindness [1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, eyes, external applications: In Dhofar, the soot
of the gum was collected in a pot held inverted over the burning gum and then
scraped off and used to make eye antimony (or to stretch a small amount of the
costly imported antimony) [1354]
Other exudate parts, humans, eyes, external applications: In Ethiopia, the soot
of the gum is considered to be good for the eyes. Fumigation with the smoke is
considered beneficial to sore or tired eyes. [1593]
MEDICINES - SKIN/SUBCUTANEOUS CELLULAR TISSUE DISORDERS
Bark, humans, skin, other skin disorders, ointments: The astringent bark was
dried and powdered and made up into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing
ointment which was rubbed over the entire body as a remedy for chapped skin [1354]
Bark, humans, sores, ointments: The astringent bark was dried and powdered and
made up into a paste which was used by Dhofaris as a soothing ointment which
was rubbed over the entire body as a remedy for skin sores [1354]
Exudates, humans, skin of specific areas, external applications: Frankincense
mixed with wax was a common treatment for removing bags under the eyes: Emperor
Nero was said to have used this to disguise the physical evidence of nights of
debauchery! [1593]
Gum, humans, skin, external applications: The gum is dried, crushed and mixed
with myrrh, dried aloes' juice and egg white and painted over sore areas of skin
to make a protective coating [1593]
Gum, humans, ulcers, external applications: The gum is dried, crushed and mixed
with myrrh and dried aloes' juice to make an antiseptic powder used on ulcers
[1593]
Other exudate parts, humans, disinfectant: Soot produced from burning frankincense
was valued as a disinfectant for treating wounds, ulceration and cancerous growths
[1593]
USES NOTES - MISCELLANEOUS
Frankincense is used in fumigating powders and pastilles [1397]
The less valuable of the two frankincense trees (I.e. B. sacra and B. frereana
Birdw.) [2455]
TOXICITY/POISONOUS COMPOUNDS
Leaves mixed with dried sardines and flour, fed to camels and goats, sometimes
induced a severe illness [1593]
CHEMICAL ANALYSES - MISCELLANEOUS
Exudates, essential oils: Essential oils from the oleo-gum-resin are obtained
by co-distillation of the frankincense, with steam (steam distillation). The
essential oils are mainly the simpler mono and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons of
empirical formulae C10H16 and C15H24, respectively. These, together with their
oxygenated derivatives, the corresponding alcohols, aldehydes and ketones, are
termed terpenoids. Over 20 monoterpenes have been identified in olibanum oil
and one investigation yielded 28 sesquiterpenoids from similar material [1405]
Exudates, polysaccharides: The gum portion of B. sacra comprises two polysaccharides,
one of equal proportions of galactose and arabinose, the other of galactose and
galacturonic acid in the proportions 2:1 [1405]
Exudates: Consists of resin (60-70%), gum (27-35%) and volatile oil (3-8%) [1397]
Exudates: Frankincense comprises about 5-9% essential oils, 65-85% alcohol-soluble
resins with the remainder being water-soluble gums. The chemistry underlying
the fragrance of frankincense is extremely complex because of the large number
of chemicals involved: in one analysis of the resinoid and oil of olibanum, 86
chemicals were identified [1405]
Exudates: Oleo-gum-resin from different geographical origins, and from different
species, yield different proportions of terpenoids; it is likely that growing
conditions also affect the composition of the frankincense. Not enough unadulterated
material from accurately identified species and sites has been fully analyzed
to indicate which chemicals are species-constant, or which are responsible for
the perfume [1405]
Exudates: Olibanum is chemically an oleo gum-resin containing about 27-35% of
polysaccharide, 5-7% of a highly aromatic essential oil and the other 60-70%
being terpenes (mainly free and combined boswellic acid, L-pinene, dipentene
and phellandrene). The polysaccharide is composed of D-
galactose (7 moles), L-arabinose (1 mole) and 4-o-methyl-D-glucuronic acid (4
moles). Traces of L(+)rhamnose and L(-)fucose have also been detected [1365]
Exudates: The exudate is an oleo-gum resin which contains 3-8% of volatile oil
consisting of numerous terpenes (e.g. p-cymene) and sesquiterpenes, c. 60-70%
of resin and 7-35% of gum. Details of the chemical compounds are given in [1395]
[1368] [1395]
Exudates: The oleo-gum-resin contains incensole, incensole oxide and isoincensole
oxide (diterpenes)
Exudates: The triterpene acid 'boswellic acid' was isolated from the resin, and
pinene, phellandrene, dipentene, camphene, p-cymene and 'olibanol' from the oil
[1400]
CLIMATE
Oman, Dhofar: Frankincense trees grow in a fairly restricted habitat. They prefer
the arid zone behind the monsoon mountains, beyond the reach of the monsoon rain,
but within the reach of cool winds which blow steadily during this season. Where
the trees grow (or have been transplanted purposely, as has been suggested for
those trees found at the back of the Salalah plain) within the range of the monsoon
rains, they are known to produce an inferior quality of frankincense
The trees seem to be favored by a hot and humid climate and need good access
to water to grow well, though they will survive under considerably drier conditions
[1095]
RAINFALL
Oman, Dhofar: The erroneous understanding that frankincense trees only grow in
areas of good rain has persisted even among some modern authorities, such as
Muller (1976), who says that the trees are cultivated in the Qarra mountains
in areas where the monsoon rains reach. In fact, it is thought that the better
frankincense comes from areas beyond the reach of the monsoon [1593]
ALTITUDE
According to Bergstrom et al. (1982) 'mohor ad' occurs from 730 to 1230 m, whereas
'mohor madow' is scattered between 730 to 1000 m [1095]
B. sacra may occur just above sea-level in places where the coastline is steep
and rocky, e.g. east of Bereda in north-east Somalia and at Ras Fartak in Hadhramaut.
The upper known limit in Somalia is 1230 m (measured south of Mait) and the upper
limit in Arabia seems to be at about the same level (1800 m in Somalia as given
by Hildebrandt is certainly incorrect) [1342]
Somalia: On the northern slope of Iddie Mt. the lowest individuals are found
growing at the same altitude as highest B. frereana Birdw. trees at around 730
m. However, in general B. sacra grows higher up where the higher rainfall supports
a denser and somewhat more varied vegetation than in the B. frereana zone [1095]
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