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TOPOGRAPHY/SITES
Oman, Dhofar: Found in the dry zones, and in wadis extending to the coast on
the lower slopes of the gullies and run-offs [1368]
Oman, Dhofar: Mostly found growing on the lower slopes and down in the base of
gullies and run-offs, or more thickly along the broader floors of the larger
wadis, rarely being able to survive on the high ridges or the high raised plateau
[1593]
The trees prefer the arid zone behind the monsoon mountains, beyond the reach
of the monsoon rain, but within the reach of the cool winds which blow steadily
during this season. Where the trees grow (or have been transplanted purposely,
as has been suggested for those trees found at the back of the Salalah plain)
within the range of the monsoon rains, they are known to produce an inferior
quality of frankincense. The trees on the seaward-facing slopes west of the Thumrait
road and along the course of Wadi Adonib, for instance, were recognized as not
being as profitable to work as were the trees growing in the rocky gullies and
run-offs in the dry hinterland of the Mughsail area, in the high mountains behind
Hasik and Sudh, or in the larger north-draining wadis behind Jibjat, such as
those in the vicinity of Barbazum and Dhahabon [1593]
Usually in rocky slopes and gullies, often on limestone boulders, and more rarely
on vertical rock-faces like B. frereana Birdw. [1342]
While the trees grow in areas of low rainfall and on bare rock it is thought
that their roots penetrate down to reach water carrying layers. Planted trees
seen in Mait, Dayaha, God Anod and in Debbis nursery seemed to depend on a good
water supply to support lush foliage. Boswellias are sometimes found in watercourses,
actually growing on rocks, but their roots penetrate crevices in the rock and
grow down into the watercourses [1095]
GEOLOGY
Limestone: Said to grow on dolomitic limestone or limestone only [2255]
VEGETATION
Somalia (N.): The trees are dispersed here and there and the density of the vegetation
is very low [1095]
Somalia: Found in Acacia-Commiphora woodland in the subcoastal zone and, at higher
altitudes, also penetrates the evergreen scrub zone, where it is associated with
trees and shrubs like Buxus hildebrandtii Baill., Dodonaea viscosa Jacq., Cadia
purpurea (Picc.)Ait., Sterculia africana (Low)Fiori, Ficus sp., Delonix elata
(L.)Gamble, Acacia bussei Sjost, Acacia etbaica Schweinf., Maytenus somalensis
(Loes.)Cufod., Indigofera sedgewickiana Vatke & Hildebr. and Dracaena schizantha
Baker. At the southernmost known locality, the Karkar Mountains, northeast of
Gardo, it is found in sparse vegetation with Acacia spp., Commiphora spp. and
Mimusops angel Chiov. [1095] [1342]
FLOWERING/FRUITING/SEED SET
Flowering, fruiting, southern Arabia: Flowering and fruiting occurs from September
to November [1368]
Fruiting, Somalia: Near Mait, in 1982, a few trees were seen to be fruiting [1095]
DISPERSAL
The seeds are small and flat and are produced in small easily breaking capsules
with 3-5 seeds in each. The seeds seem adapted to wind dispersal, eventually
becoming trapped in holes in the limestone [1095]
GERMINATION
Studies have found a very low rate, of less than 8%, even after treatment with
different hormones [1095]
SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT
A suggestion as to how seedlings survive in areas of low rainfall, with two long
dry seasons, is that water from the commonly occurring mists in the area condense
on the rocks and within cavities, thus becoming available for the plant. The
swelling of the trunk-base starts at an early stage [1095]
LONGEVITY
Somalia: Unconfirmed reports state the trees could live for at least a hundred
years [1095]
CYTOLOGY
2n=22 [1342]
PHYSIOLOGICAL TOLERANCES
The trees need good access to water to grow well, though they will survive under
considerably drier conditions [1095]
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Evidence indicates that B. sacra is easy to propagate from cuttings and, given
the right conditions, they will grow well [1095]
Somalia: Seven individuals of B. sacra, planted in 1975, were growing at the
Debbis nursery. The trees measured between 173 and 295 cm. Most trees had been
propagated from cuttings and transplanted, but a few cuttings which had been
planted directly had produced the largest trees. In 1982 the trees appeared to
be barely growing, and under hard stress, probably due to lack of water. The
provision of microcatchments for rainwater collection could have improved growing
conditions [1095]
HARVESTING
Ghazanfar (1994) states that the best quality of gum is collected from the ground
after it has fallen and solidified and lower quality gum is scraped from the
bark. This contradicts data from Howes (1946) [see note under HARVESTING] and,
indeed, Miller & Morris (1988) [see note under MATERIALS - GUMS/RESINS] who
he cites as a reference. These authors state that the gum which collects on the
wound is considered the best and that gum scraped from the bark or picked from
the ground is considered inferior or impure [532] [1368] [1593]
Oleo-gum-resin: A special tool, called a "mengaff", is used. One end
has a sharp edge, used for the decortications, and the other end being blunt
is used in assisting to remove the exudate when it has hardened. In tapping,
a wound 4-8 cm long is made and a single tree may be tapped in one or more places
according to its size. After about a fortnight the exudate, which collects as
globular, pear-shaped or club-shaped tears, is removed and the wound freshened.
Further collection is carried out every few weeks. At each collection it is customary
to remove only the exudate that collects on the wound itself, that which runs
down the stem being left to accumulate and collected annually. This resin is
of a transparent yellow color with whitish streaks and constitutes an inferior
or impure form. The practice is to suspend tapping of each tree every fifth or
sixth year to allow a resting period, otherwise the trees become exhausted [532]
Oleo-gum-resin: A study suggested that tapping methods could be improved, and
that the equipment used in tapping rubber trees (Hevea spp.) in plantations could
be trialled [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: After making incisions in the trunk or branches the oleo-gum-resin
exudes and solidifies and is collected by local people as soon as it has hardened
sufficiently. Collection takes place in the dry season as the resin is easily
spoiled by rain [1397]
Oleo-gum-resin: An informant from the Sanag region said that B. sacra was tapped
during two periods each year (each period of about 90 days). Intervals of about
15 days between tappings means that there are about 6 tappings per period over
which the gum quality in terms of size and purity gradually declined. The first
period was from January to March and the second from August to October, although
this is somewhat dependent on rainfall. Another informant said that the two periods
per year are each of approximately 135 days with 15 day intervals, giving 18
tappings annually. The first tapping commences in June, before the "spring
rains"; after 135 days the trees are given a rest of one month before the
next tapping period. Intervals of 15 days are very suitable, as there is not
time for the gum ducts to heal completely between the tappings, so that the yield
is maximized. The differences between these regimes and those said to be used
for B. frereana Birdw. are thought to exist because B. frereana occurs on drier
and in more inaccessible sites. In practice, nowadays, trees on more accessible
sites are often tapped continuously during the year, without any rest [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: Around 1950 the collection of oleo-gum-resin was said to take
place mainly in the north of Italian Somaliland, in the arid Migiurtinia district.
Tapping was carried out at the end of March or early April and continued until
about the end of September. Tapping was carried out by scraping away portions
of the bark and not by making "incisions" in the tree [1397]
Oleo-gum-resin: Every tree is owned, all the trees in the same area belong to
the same person or family. Owners often belong to cooperatives, whereby communal
loans can be arranged and the profits are shared according to the input (number
of trees) of each member. The cooperatives normally employ other collectors.
Collection of 2-3 kg per tree, which is the average yearly yield, means 7-20
visits to the tree. Collectors must go by foot in areas with few roads, steep
rocky slopes and few waterholes, and the work is sometimes hazardous. The low
prices paid to the seller has led to an over-exploitation of accessible trees
and an under-exploitation of remote trees [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: Frankincense is contained in schizogenous reservoirs in the bark,
from which it is obtained either by scraping the gray, papery bark, or, more
usually, by 'tapping', using a spatula chisel (a mengaff) to make deep, longitudinal
incisions 4-8 cm long in spring and autumn. The exuding milky juice hardens on
exposure to the air to produce globular or pyriform tears. The first two collections
are considered to be of a lower quality than subsequent ones. The tears are collected
after two or three weeks and the scar is re-cut. The gum is stored for about
12 weeks to harden to the required consistency. After a spell of tapping extending
for five to six years, the trees are rested. Two kinds of frankincense are recognized:
zakana or 'male frankincense', which is deep yellow or reddish, having circular
tears and kundura unsa or 'female frankincense', which is reddish white, translucent
and pale [1405]
Oleo-gum-resin: The earliest records of collection and trade of frankincense
are shrouded in an often impenetrable mantle of myth with, for example, gum-bearing
trees said to be guarded by fierce red snakes which leaped into the air to inflict
fatal bites on any intruder; or the trees were believed to grow in an area of
swirling mists, the source of deadly disease and fatal epidemics, a place both
mountainous and forbidding, wrapped in dense cloud and fog. In the earliest times,
such frankincense as was wrested from this inhospitable terrain seems to have
been reserved for divine worship, and was considered to be sacred to the gods
[1593]
Oleo-gum-resin: The new tapping points are made at the same places as the old
ones after harvesting, only a light scratch being required to have the gum flowing
again. A special instrument called a "mangaaf" is used for wounding
the bark and scraping off the hardened frankincense. The wound should be about
30 mm wide and have a depth of 2.5-4 mm, i.e. not through to the wood. The length
depends on the size and condition of the tree. However, in practice palm-sized
patches, where the bark has been removed by an ordinary axe are seen, often with
the wood exposed [1095]
Oleo-gum-resin: Traditionally and today, frankincense is collected from wild
trees, from December to June, and primarily in March. The best quality of gum
is pale in color, the lower quality gum reddish [1368]
Oleo-gum-resin: A complex pattern of clan/feudal ownership of trees and collection
rights exists in Somalia [1352]
Under favorable conditions tapping can be started after 5 to 7 years. The size
of the trees will then be 4-5 m and around 15 cm diameter at 1.3 m above ground
level [1095]
YIELDS
2-3 kg per tree is the average yearly yield [1095]
Approximately 4 kilos of frankincense per tree, of a value of $35/kilo, were
tapped every 15 days for set months [2255]
PRODUCTION
Dhofar: The southern region of Arabia, chiefly Dhofar, has been the major frankincense-producing
area in recent times. The frankincense trade in the southern region of Arabia
has declined considerably [1368]
Essential oils: Essential oils from the oleo-gum-resin are obtained by co-distillation
of the frankincense, with steam (steam distillation) [1405]
Oleo-gum-resin: The major producing countries of the oleo-gum-resin are Somalia
and Ethiopia [1400]
Somalia: 200 tons of 'beyo' olibanum (i.e. from B. sacra) were produced for the
world market in 1987, less than the 800 tons of 'maidi' olibanum (from B. frereana
Birdw.) and 2000 tons of Eritrean olibanum [2449]
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